АКТИВАЦИЯ ИММУНИТЕТА ПРИ ВИЧ-ИНФЕКЦИИ

Данный литературный обзор посвящен актуальной проблеме ВИЧ-инфекции – актива-ции иммунитета. Иммунная активация в значительной мере определяет утрату CD4+T-лимфоцитов, приводит к развитию СПИД-ассоциированных и СПИД-неассоциированных заболеваний, а ее по-казатели являются весомыми прогностическими факторами исхода болезни. Активация при ВИЧ-инфекции захватывает клетки как врожденного, так и адаптивного иммунитета, ведет к усилению продукции провоспалительных цитокинов и повышению коагуляции крови. Причиной развития иммунной активации могут быть инфекционные агенты (ВИЧ, цитомегаловирус, вирус Эпштейна– Барр, вирус гепатита C), лимфопения и индуцированный ею процесс гомеостатической пролифе-рации лимфоцитов, транслокация микробов и их продуктов из кишечника, что связано с глубоким дефицитом CD4+T-клеток в lamina propria и нарушением проницаемости кишечного барьера. Други-ми факторами, поддерживающими процесс активации иммунитета, являются «сторонняя» актива-ция T-лимфоцитов, усиление оборота T-клеток, развитие системного воспаления. В работе не только рассмотрены патогенетические механизмы развития ВИЧ-инфекции, связанные с синдромом им-мунной активации, но также приведены различные лабораторные параметры, характеризующие ее проявление у инфицированных пациентов. Представлены значение и прогностическая роль этих па-раметров в оценке эффективности антиретровирусной терапии, формировании осложнений и нега-тивного исхода инфекции.

1. Adam S.S., Key N.S., Greenberg C.S. D-dimer antigen: current concepts and future prospects. Blood, 2009, Vol. 113, no. 13, pp. 2878-2887.

2. Aggarwal B.B., Natarajan K. Tumor necrosis factors: developments during the last decade. Eur. Cytokine Netw., 1996, Vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 93-124.

3. Akila P., Prashant V., Suma M.N., Prashant S.N., Chaitra T.R. CD163 and its expanding functional repertoire. Clin. Chim. Acta, 2012, Vol. 413, no. 7-8, pp. 669-674.

4. Amirayan-Chevillard N., Tissot-Dupont H., Obadia Y., Gallais H., Mege J.L., Capo C. Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) and circulating markers of immune activation: specific effect of HAART on neopterin. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol., 2000, Vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 832-834.

5. Ananworanich J., Kerr S.J., Jaimulwong T., Vibol U., Hansudewechakul R., Kosalaraksa P., Ngampiyaskul C., Kanjanavanit S., Wongsawat J., Luesomboon W., Apornpong T., Soulas C., Paul R., Ruxrungtham K., Puthanakit T. Soluble CD163 and monocyte populations in response to antiretroviral therapy and in relationship with neuropsychological testing among HIV-infected children. J. Virus Erad., 2015, Vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 196-202.

6. Antonelli A., Ferrari S.M., Giuggioli D., Ferrannini E., Ferri C., Fallahi P. Chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand (CXCL)10 in autoimmune diseases. Autoimmun. Rev., 2014, Vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 272-280.

7. Apetrei C., Sumpter B., Souquiere S., Chahroudi A., Makuwa M., Reed P., Ribeiro R.M., Pandrea I., Roques P., Silvestri G. Immunovirological analyses of chronically simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmnd-1-and SIVmnd-2-infected mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx). J. Virol., 2011, Vol. 85, no. 24, pp. 13077-13087.

8. Appay V., Kelleher A.D. Immune activation and immune aging in HIV infection. Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS, 2016, Vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 242-249.

9. Armah K.A., McGinnis K., Baker J., Gibert C., Butt A.A., Bryant K.J., Goetz M., Tracy R., Oursler K.K., Rimland D., Crothers K., Rodriguez-Barradas M., Crystal S., Gordon A., Kraemer K., Brown S., Gerschenson M., Leaf D.A., Deeks S.G., Rinaldo C., Kuller L.H., Justice A., Freiberg M. HIV status, burden of comorbid disease, and biomarkers of inflammation, altered coagulation, and monocyte activation. Clin. Infect. Dis, 2012, Vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 126-136.

10. Aukrust P., Liabakk N.B., Muller F., Lien E., Espevik T., Froland S.S. Serum levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF alpha) and soluble TNF receptors in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection-correlations to clinical, immunologic, and virologic parameters. J. Infect. Dis., 1994, Vol. 169, no. 2, pp. 420-424.

11. Aukrust P., Liabakk N.B., Muller F., Espevik T. Activation of tumor necrosis factor alpha system in HIV-1 infection: association with markers of immune activation. Infection, 1995, Vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 9-15.

12. Baker J., Ayenew W., Quick H., Hullsiek K.H., Tracy R., Henry K., Duprez D., Neaton J.D. High-density lipoprotein particles and markers of inflammation and thrombotic activity in patients with untreated HIV infection. J. Infect. Dis., 2010, Vol. 201, no. 2, pp. 285-292.

13. Bas S., Gauthier B.R., Spenato U., Stingelin S., Gabay C. CD14 is an acute-phase protein. J. Immunol., 2004, Vol. 172, no. 7, pp. 4470-4479.

14. Bastidas S., Graw F., Smith M.Z., Kuster H., Gunthard H.F., Oxenius A. CD8+ T cells are activated in an antigen-independent manner in HIV-infected individuals. J. Immunol., 2014, Vol. 192, no. 4, pp. 1732-1744.

15. Bazil V., Strominger J.L. Shedding as a mechanism of down-modulation of CD14 on stimulated human monocytes. J. Immunol., 1991, Vol. 147, no. 5, pp. 1567-1574.

16. Beignon A.S., McKenna K., Skoberne M., Manches O., DaSilva I., Kavanagh D.G., Larsson M., Gorelick R.J., Lifson J.D., Bhardwaj N. Endocytosis of HIV-1 activates plasmacytoid dendritic cells via toll-like receptor-viral RNA interactions. J. Clin. Invest., 2005, Vol. 115, no. 11, pp. 3265-3275.

17. Berdowska A., Zwirska-Korczala K. Neopterin measurement in clinical diagnosis. J. Clin. Pharm. Ther., 2001, Vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 319-329.

18. Betts M.R., Ambrozak D.R., Douek D.C., Bonhoeffer S., Brenchley J.M., Casazza J.P., Koup R.A., Picker L.J. Analysis of total human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-specific CD4 (+) and CD8 (+) T-cell responses: relationship to viral load in untreated HIV infection. J. Virol., 2001, Vol. 75, no. 24, pp. 11983-11991.

19. Biancotto A., Grivel J.C., Iglehart S.J., Vanpouille C., Lisco A., Sieg S.F., Debernardo R., Garate K., Rodriguez B., Margolis L.B., Lederman M.M. Abnormal activation and cytokine spectra in lymph nodes of people chronically infected with HIV-1. Blood, 2007, Vol. 109, no. 10, pp. 4272-4279.

20. Bonecchi R., Bianchi G., Bordignon P.P., D’Ambrosio D., Lang R., Borsatti A., Sozzani S., Allavena P., Gray P.A., Mantovani A., Sinigaglia F. Differential expression of chemokine receptors and chemotactic responsiveness of type 1 T helper cells (Th1s) and Th2s. J. Exp. Med., 1998, Vol. 187, no. 1, pp. 129-134.

21. Borges A.H., O’Connor J.L., Phillips A.N., Ronsholt F.F., Pett S., Vjecha M.J., French M.A., Lundgren J.D., Insight S., Groups E.S., the S.S.C. Factors Associated With Plasma IL-6 Levels During HIV Infection. J. Infect. Dis., 2015, Vol. 212, no. 4, pp. 585-595.

22. Brenchley J.M., Price D.A., Schacker T.W., Asher T.E., Silvestri G., Rao S., Kazzaz Z., Bornstein E., Lambotte O., Altmann D., Blazar B.R., Rodriguez B., Teixeira-Johnson L., Landay A., Martin J.N., Hecht F.M., Picker L.J., Lederman M.M., Deeks S.G., Douek D.C. Microbial translocation is a cause of systemic immune activation in chronic HIV infection. Nat. Med., 2006, Vol. 12, no. 12, pp. 1365-1371.

23. Brenner D., Krammer P.H., Arnold R. Concepts of activated T cell death. Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol., 2008, Vol. 66, no. 1, pp. 52-64.

24. Budd R.C. Activation-induced cell death. Curr. Opin. Immunol., 2001, Vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 356-362.

25. Bukh A.R., Melchjorsen J., Offersen R., Jensen J.M.B., Toft L., Stovring H., Ostergaard L., Tolstrup M., Sogaard O.S. Endotoxemia Is Associated with Altered Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses in Untreated HIV-1 Infected Individuals. PloS One, 2011, Vol. 6, e21275. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0021275.

26. Burdo T.H., Lentz M.R., Autissier P., Krishnan A., Halpern E., Letendre S., Rosenberg E.S., Ellis R.J., Williams K.C. Soluble CD163 made by monocyte/macrophages is a novel marker of HIV activity in early and chronic infection prior to and after anti-retroviral therapy. J. Infect. Dis., 2011, Vol. 204, no. 1, pp. 154-163.

27. Calmy A., Gayet-Ageron A., Montecucco F., Nguyen A., Mach F., Burger F., Ubolyam S., Carr A., Ruxungtham K., Hirschel B., Ananworanich J., Grp S.S. HIV increases markers of cardiovascular risk: results from a randomized, treatment interruption trial. AIDS, 2009, Vol. 23, no. 8, pp. 929-939.

28. Caradonna L., Amati L., Magrone T., Pellegrino N.M., Jirillo E., Caccavo D. Enteric bacteria, lipopolysaccharides and related cytokines in inflammatory bowel disease: biological and clinical significance. J. Endotoxin Res., 2000, Vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 205-214.

29. Catalfamo M., Di Mascio M., Hu Z., Srinivasula S., Thaker V., Adelsberger J., Rupert A., Baseler M., Tagaya Y., Roby G., Rehm C., Follmann D., Lane H.C. HIV infection-associated immune activation occurs by two distinct pathways that differentially affect CD4 and CD8 T cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2008, Vol. 105, no. 50, pp. 19851-19856.

30. Catalfamo M., Wilhelm C., Tcheung L., Proschan M., Friesen T., Park J.H., Adelsberger J., Baseler M., Maldarelli F., Davey R., Roby G., Rehm C., Lane C. CD4 and CD8 T cell immune activation during chronic HIV infection: roles of homeostasis, HIV, type I IFN, and IL-7. J. Immunol., 2011, Vol. 186, no. 4, pp. 2106-2116.

31. Chadha S., Bhalla P., Gautam H., Chakravarti A., Saini S., Anuradha S., Dewan R. Utility of serum neopterin and serum IL-2 receptor levels to predict absolute CD4 T lymphocyte count in HIV infected cases. Interdiscip. Perspect. Infect. Dis., 2013, Vol. 2013, pp. 143648.

32. Chagan-Yasutan H., Saitoh H., Ashino Y., Arikawa T., Hirashima M., Li S., Usuzawa M., Oguma S., EF O.T., Obi C.L., Hattori T. Persistent elevation of plasma osteopontin levels in HIV patients despite highly active antiretroviral therapy. Tohoku J. Exp. Med., 2009, Vol. 218, no. 4, pp. 285-292.

33. Chahroudi A., Bosinger S.E., Vanderford T.H., Paiardini M., Silvestri G. Natural SIV Hosts: Showing AIDS the Door. Science, 2012, Vol. 335, no. 6073, pp. 1188-1193.

34. Chakir H., Lam D.K.Y., Lemay A.M., Webb J.R. ‘Bystander polarization’ of CD4+ T cells: activation with high-dose IL-2 renders naive T cells responsive to IL-12 and/or IL-18 in the absence of TCR ligation. Eur. J. Immunol., 2003, Vol. 33, no. 7, pp. 1788-1798.

35. Chalasani G., Dai Z.H., Konieczny B.T., Baddoura F.K., Lakkis F.G. Recall and propagation of allospecific memory T cells independent of secondary lymphoid organs. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2002, Vol. 99, no. 9, pp. 6175-6180.

36. Chapman T.J., Castrucci M.R., Padnick R.C., Bradley L.M., Topham D.J. Antigen-specific and non-specific CD4 (+) T cell recruitment and proliferation during influenza infection. Virology, 2005, Vol. 340, no. 2, pp. 296-306.

37. Chastain D.B., Henderson H., Stover K.R. Epidemiology and management of antiretroviral-associated cardiovascular disease. Open AIDS J, 2015, Vol. 9, pp. 23-37.

38. Chen A.M., Khanna N., Stohlman S.A., Bergmann C.C. Virus-specific and bystander CD8 T cells recruited during virus-induced encephalomyelitis. J. Virol., 2005, Vol. 79, no. 8, pp. 4700-4708.

39. Chen L.J., Lv J., Wen X.Y., Niu J.Q. CXC chemokine IP-10: a key actor in liver disease? Hepatol. Int., 2013, Vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 798-804.

40. Chou C.S., Ramilo O., Vitetta E.S. Highly purified CD25(-) resting T cells cannot be infected de novo with HIV-1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1997, Vol. 94, no. 4, pp. 1361-1365.

41. Damsker J.M., Hansen A.M., Caspi R.R. Th1 and Th17 cells: adversaries and collaborators. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 2010, Vol. 1183, pp. 211-221.

42. Deeks S.G., Kitchen C.M., Liu L., Guo H., Gascon R., Narvaez A.B., Hunt P., Martin J.N., Kahn J.O., Levy J., McGrath M.S., Hecht F.M. Immune activation set point during early HIV infection predicts subsequent CD4+ T-cell changes independent of viral load. Blood, 2004, Vol. 104, no. 4, pp. 942-947.

43. Deeks S.G. HIV infection, inflammation, immunosenescence, and aging. Annu. Rev. Med., 2011, Vol. 62, pp. 141-155.

44. Deeks S.G., Tracy R., Douek D.C. Systemic effects of inflammation on health during chronic HIV infection. Immunity, 2013, Vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 633-645.

45. Devadas K., Biswas S., Haleyurgirisetty M., Wood O., Ragupathy V., Lee S., Hewlett I. Analysis of Host Gene Expression Profile in HIV-1 and HIV-2 Infected T-Cells. PloS One, 2016, Vol. 11, e0147421.

46. Diehl S., Rincon M. The two faces of IL-6 on Th1/Th2 differentiation. Mol. Immunol., 2002, Vol. 39, no. 9, pp. 531-536.

47. Diez-Ruiz A., Tilz G.P., Zangerle R., Baier-Bitterlich G., Wachter H., Fuchs D. Soluble receptors for tumour necrosis factor in clinical laboratory diagnosis. Eur. J. Haematol., 1995, Vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 1-8.

48. Doisne J.M., Urrutia A., Lacabaratz-Porret C., Goujard C., Meyer L., Chaix M.L., Sinet M., Venet A. CD8+ T cells specific for EBV, cytomegalovirus, and influenza virus are activated during primary HIV infection. J. Immunol., 2004, Vol. 173, no. 4, pp. 2410-2418.

49. Douek D.C., Betts M.R., Hill B.J., Little S.J., Lempicki R., Metcalf J.A., Casazza J., Yoder C., Adelsberger J.W., Stevens R.A., Baseler M.W., Keiser P., Richman D.D., Davey R.T., Koup R.A. Evidence for increased T cell turnover and decreased thymic output in HIV infection. J. Immunol., 2001, Vol. 167, no. 11, pp. 6663-6668.

50. Dukes C.S., Matthews T.J., Rivadeneira E.D., Weinberg J.B. Neopterin production by HIV-1-infected mononuclear phagocytes. J. Leuk. Biol., 1994, Vol. 56, no. 5, pp. 650-653.

51. Duprez D.A., Kuller L.H., Tracy R., Otvos J., Cooper D.A., Hoy J., Neuhaus J., Paton N.I., Friis-Moller N., Lampe F., Liappis A.P., Neaton J.D., Grp I.S.S. Lipoprotein particle subclasses, cardiovascular disease and HIV infection. Atherosclerosis, 2009, Vol. 207, no. 2, pp. 524-529.

52. Duprez D.A., Neuhaus J., Kuller L.H., Tracy R., Belloso W., De Wit S., Drummond F., Lane H.C., Ledergerber B., Lundgren J., Nixon D., Paton N.I., Prineas R.J., Neaton J.D., Grp I.S.S. Inflammation, Coagulation and Cardiovascular Disease in HIV-Infected Individuals. PloS One, 2012, Vol. 7, e44454.

53. Durand M., Sheehy O., Baril J.G., Lelorier J., Tremblay C.L. Association Between HIV Infection, Antiretroviral Therapy, and Risk of Acute Myocardial Infarction: A Cohort and Nested Case-Control Study Using Quebec’s Public Health Insurance Database. JAIDS, 2011, Vol. 57, no. 3, pp. 245-253.

54. Dutertre C.A., Amraoui S., DeRosa A., Jourdain J.P., Vimeux L., Goguet M., Degrelle S., Feuillet V., Liovat A.S., Muller-Trutwin M., Decroix N., Deveau C., Meyer L., Goujard C., Loulergue P., Launay O., Richard Y., Hosmalin A. Pivotal role of M-DC8 (+) monocytes from viremic HIV-infected patients in TNF alpha overproduction in response to microbial products. Blood, 2012, Vol. 120, no. 11, pp. 2259-2268.

55. Eggena M.P., Barugahare B., Okello M., Mutyala S., Jones N., Ma Y.F., Kityo C., Mugyenyi P., Cao H. T cell activation in HIV-seropositive Ugandans: Differential associations with viral load, CD4 (+) T cell depletion, and coinfection. J. Infect. Dis., 2005, Vol. 191, no. 5, pp. 694-701.

56. Engelberts I., Moller A., Schoen G.J.M., Vanderlinden C.J., Buurman W.A. Evaluation of measurement of human TNF in plasma by ELISA. Lymphokine Cytok. Res., 1991, Vol. 10, no. 1-2, pp. 69-76.

57. Ershler W.B., Sun W.H., Binkley N., Gravenstein S., Volk M.J., Kamoske G., Klopp R.G., Roecker E.B., Daynes R.A., Weindruch R. Interleukin-6 and aging: blood levels and mononuclear cell production increase with advancing age and in vitro production is modifiable by dietary restriction. Lymphokine Cytok. Res., 1993, Vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 225-230.

58. Estes J.D., Harris L.D., Klatt N.R., Tabb B., Pittaluga S., Paiardini M., Barclay G.R., Smedley J., Pung R., Oliveira K.M., Hirsch V.M., Silvestri G., Douek D.C., Miller C.J., Haase A.T., Lifson J., Brenchley J.M. Damaged intestinal epithelial integrity linked to microbial translocation in pathogenic simian immunodeficiency virus infections. PloS Pathog., 2010, Vol. 6, e1001052. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1001052.

59. Etzerodt A., Moestrup S.K. CD163 and inflammation: biological, diagnostic, and therapeutic aspects. Antioxid. Redox Signal, 2013, Vol. 18, no. 17, pp. 2352-2363.

60. Evans T.G., Bonnez W., Soucier H.R., Fitzgerald T., Gibbons D.C., Reichman R.C. Highly active antiretroviral therapy results in a decrease in CD8 (+) T cell activation and preferential reconstitution of the peripheral CD4 (+) T cell population with memory rather than naive cells. Antivir. Res., 1998, Vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 163-173.

61. Fitch K.V., Srinivasa S., Abbara S., Burdo T.H., Williams K.C., Eneh P., Lo J., Grinspoon S.K. Noncalcified coronary atherosclerotic plaque and immune activation in HIV-infected women. J. Infect. Dis., 2013, Vol. 208, no. 11, pp. 1737-1746.

62. Fogli M., Costa P., Murdaca G., Setti M., Mingari M.C., Moretta L., Moretta A., De Maria A. Significant NK cell activation associated with decreased cytolytic function in peripheral blood of HIV-1-infected patients. Eur. J. Immunol., 2004, Vol. 34, no. 8, pp. 2313-2321.

63. Foley J.H., Conway E.M. Cross talk pathways between coagulation and inflammation. Circ. Res., 2016, Vol. 118, no. 9, pp. 1392-1408.

64. Frings W., Dreier J., Sorg C. Only the soluble form of the scavenger receptor CD163 acts inhibitory on phorbol ester-activated T-lymphocytes, whereas membrane-bound protein has no effect. FEBS Lett., 2002, Vol. 526, no. 1-3, pp. 93-96.

65. Fry T.J., Mackall C.L. The many faces of IL-7: from lymphopoiesis to peripheral T cell maintenance. J. Immunol., 2005, Vol. 174, no. 11, pp. 6571-6576.

66. Fuchs D., Shearer G.M., Boswell R.N., Clerici M., Reibnegger G., Werner E.R., Zajac R.A., Wachter H. Increased serum neopterin in patients with HIV-1 infection is correlated with reduced in vitro interleukin-2 production. Clin. Exp. Immunol., 1990, Vol. 80, no. 1, pp. 44-48.

67. Funderburg N., Luciano A.A., Jiang W., Rodriguez B., Sieg S.F., Lederman M.M. Toll-like receptor ligands induce human T cell activation and death, a model for HIV pathogenesis. PLoS One, 2008, Vol. 3, e1915. doi: 10.1371/journal. pone.0001915.

68. Funderburg N.T., Mayne E., Sieg S.F., Asaad R., Jiang W., Kalinowska M., Luciano A.A., Stevens W., Rodriguez B., Brenchley J.M., Douek D.C., Lederman M.M. Increased tissue factor expression on circulating monocytes in chronic HIV infection: relationship to in vivo coagulation and immune activation. Blood, 2010, Vol. 115, no. 2, pp. 161-167.

69. Giorgi J.V., Detels R. T-cell subset alterations in HIV-infected homosexual men: NIAID Multicenter AIDS cohort study. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol., 1989, Vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 10-18.

70. Giorgi J.V., Hultin L.E., McKeating J.A., Johnson T.D., Owens B., Jacobson L.P., Shih R., Lewis J., Wiley D.J., Phair J.P., Wolinsky S.M., Detels R. Shorter survival in advanced human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection is more closely associated with T lymphocyte activation than with plasma virus burden or virus chemokine coreceptor usage. J. Infect. Dis., 1999, Vol. 179, no. 4, pp. 859-870.

71. Godfried M.H., Vanderpoll T., Jansen J., Romijin J.A., Schattenkerk J.K.M.E., Endert E., Vandeventer S.J.H., Sauerwein H.P. Soluble Receptors for Tumor-Necrosis-Factor – a Putative Marker of Disease Progression in HIV-Infection. AIDS, 1993, Vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 33-36.

72. Godfried M.H., Vanderpoll T., Weverling G.J., Mulder J.W., Jansen J., Vandeventer S.J.H., Sauerwein H.P. Soluble Receptors for Tumor-Necrosis-Factor as Predictors of Progression to Aids in Asymptomatic Human-Immunodeficiency-Virus Type-1 Infection. J. Infect. Dis., 1994, Vol. 169, no. 4, pp. 739-745.

73. Goldrath A.W., Bevan M.J. Low-afinity ligands for the TCR drive proliferation of mature CD8 (+) T cells in lymphopenic hosts. Immunity, 1999, Vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 183-190.

74. Gordon S.N., Cervasi B., Odorizzi P., Silverman R., Aberra F., Ginsberg G., Estes J.D., Paiardini M., Frank I., Silvestri G. Disruption of intestinal CD4+ T cell homeostasis is a key marker of systemic CD4+ T cell activation in HIV-infected individuals. J. Immunol., 2010, Vol. 185, no. 9, pp. 5169-5179.

75. Gray C.M., Hong H.A., Young K., Lewis D.A., Fallows D., Manca C., Kaplan G. Plasma interferon-gamma-inducible protein 10 can be used to predict viral load in HIV-1-infected individuals. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr., 2013, Vol. 63, no. 3, pp. e115-116.

76. Green D.R., Droin N., Pinkoski M. Activation-induced cell death in T cells. Immunol. Rev., 2003, Vol. 193, pp. 70-81.

77. Groom J.R., Luster A.D. CXCR3 in T cell function. Exp. Cell. Res., 2011, Vol. 317, no. 5, pp. 620-631.

78. Grootjans J., Thuijls G., Verdam F., Derikx J.P., Lenaerts K., Buurman W.A. Non-invasive assessment of barrier integrity and function of the human gut. World J. Gastrointest. Surg., 2010, Vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 61-69.

79. Grossman Z., Meier-Schellersheim M., Sousa A.E., Victorino R.M., Paul W.E. CD4+ T-cell depletion in HIV infection: are we closer to understanding the cause? Nat. Med., 2002, Vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 319-323.

80. Grossman Z., Meier-Schellersheim M., Paul W.E., Picker L.J. Pathogenesis of HIV infection: what the virus spares is as important as what it destroys. Nat. Med., 2006, Vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 289-295.

81. Guihot A., Dentone C., Assoumou L., Parizot C., Calin R., Seang S., Soulie C., Marcelin A.G., Calvez V., Autran B., Katlama C., Costagliola D., Carcelain G. Residual immune activation in combined antiretroviral therapy-treated patients with maximally suppressed viremia. AIDS, 2016, Vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 327-330.

82. Hanson A., Sarr A.D., Shea A., Jones N., Mboup S., Kanki P., Cao H.Y. Distinct profile of T cell activation in HIV type 2 compared to HIV type 1 infection: Differential mechanism for immunoprotection. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrov., 2005, Vol. 21, no. 9, pp. 791-798.

83. Hasegawa A., Liu H.N., Ling B.H., Borda J.T., Alvarez X., Sugimoto C., Vinet-Oliphant H., Kim W.K., Williams K.C., Ribeiro R.M., Lackner A.A., Veazey R.S., Kuroda M.J. The level of monocyte turnover predicts disease progression in the macaque model of AIDS. Blood, 2009, Vol. 114, no. 14, pp. 2917-2925.

84. Hazenberg M.D., Otto S.A., van Benthem B.H., Roos M.T., Coutinho R.A., Lange J.M., Hamann D., Prins M., Miedema F. Persistent immune activation in HIV-1 infection is associated with progression to AIDS. AIDS, 2003, Vol. 17, no. 13, pp. 1881-1888.

85. Hearps A.C., Martin G.E., Angelovich T.A., Cheng W.J., Maisa A., Landay A.L., Jaworowski A., Crowe S.M. Aging is associated with chronic innate immune activation and dysregulation of monocyte phenotype and function. Aging Cell, 2012, Vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 867-875.

86. Hellerstein M., Hanley M.B., Cesar D., Siler S., Papageorgopoulos C., Wieder E., Schmidt D., Hoh R., Neese R., Macallan D., Deeks S., McCune J.M. Directly measured kinetics of circulating T lymphocytes in normal and HIV-1-infected humans. Nat. Med., 1999, Vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 83-89.

87. Hintz K.A., Rassias A.J., Wardwell K., Moss M.L., Morganelli P.M., Pioli P.A., Givan A.L., Wallace P.K., Yeager M.P., Guyre P.M. Endotoxin induces rapid metalloproteinase-mediated shedding followed by up-regulation of the monocyte hemoglobin scavenger receptor CD163. J. Leuk. Biol., 2002, Vol. 72, no. 4, pp. 711-717.

88. Hober D., Benyoucef S., Delannoy A.S., deGroote D., Ajana F., Mouton Y., Wattre P. High plasma level of soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor type II (sTNFRII) in asymptomatic HIV-1-infected patients. Infection, 1996, Vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 213-217.

89. Hoffmann G., Wirleitner B., Fuchs D. Potential role of immune system activation-associated production of neopterin derivatives in humans. Inflamm. Res., 2003, Vol. 52, no. 8, pp. 313-321.

90. Hogger P., Dreier J., Droste A., Buck F., Sorg C. Identification of the integral membrane protein RM3/1 on human monocytes as a glucocorticoid-inducible member of the scavenger receptor cysteine-rich family (CD163). J. Immunol., 1998, Vol. 161, no. 4, pp. 1883-1890.

91. Hogger P., Sorg C. Soluble CD163 inhibits phorbol ester-induced lymphocyte proliferation. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 2001, Vol. 288, no. 4, pp. 841-843.

92. Hoshino S., Konishi M., Mori M., Shimura M., Nishitani C., Kuroki Y., Koyanagi Y., Kano S., Itabe H., Ishizaka Y. HIV-1 Vpr induces TLR4/MyD88-mediated IL-6 production and reactivates viral production from latency. J. Leuk. Biol., 2010, Vol. 87, no. 6, pp. 1133-1143.

93. Huang A., Zhang Y.Y., Chen K., Hatakeyama K., Keaney J.F., Jr. Cytokine-stimulated GTP cyclohydrolase I expression in endothelial cells requires coordinated activation of nuclear factor-kappaB and Stat1/Stat3. Circ. Res., 2005, Vol. 96, no. 2, pp. 164-171.

94. Hunt P.W., Brenchley J., Sinclair E., McCune J.M., Roland M., Page-Shafer K., Hsue P., Emu B., Krone M., Lampiris H., Douek D., Martin J.N., Deeks S.G. Relationship between T cell activation and CD4 (+) T cell count in HIV-seropositive individuals with undetectable plasma HIV RNA levels in the absence of therapy. J. Infect. Dis., 2008, Vol. 197, no. 1, pp. 126-133.

95. Hunt P.W., Martin J.N., Sinclair E., Epling L., Teague J., Jacobson M.A., Tracy R.P., Corey L., Deeks S.G. Valganciclovir reduces T cell activation in HIV-infected individuals with incomplete CD4 (+) T cell recovery on antiretroviral therapy. J. Infect. Dis., 2011, Vol. 203, no. 10, pp. 1474-1483.

96. Jalbert E., Crawford T.Q., D’Antoni M.L., Keating S.M., Norris P.J., Nakamoto B.K., Seto T., Parikh N.I., Shikuma C.M., Ndhlovu L.C., Barbour J.D. IL-1enriched monocytes mount massive IL-6 responses to common inflammatory triggers among chronically HIV-1 infected adults on stable anti-retroviral therapy at risk for cardiovascular disease. PloS One, 2013, Vol. 8, e75500. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0075500.

97. Janatpour M.J., Hudak S., Sathe M., Sedgwick J.D., McEvoy L.M. Tumor necrosis factor-dependent segmental control of MIG expression by high endothelial venules in inflamed lymph nodes regulates monocyte recruitment. J. Exp. Med., 2001, Vol. 194, no. 9, pp. 1375-1384.

98. Jansen J., Vanderpoll T., Levi M., Tencate H., Gallati H., Tencate J.W., Vandeventer S.J.H. Inhibition of the Release of Soluble Tumor-Necrosis-Factor Receptors in Experimental Endotoxemia by an Antitumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha Antibody. J. Clin. Immunol., 1995, Vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 45-50.

99. Jiang W., Lederman M.M., Hunt P., Sieg S.F., Haley K., Rodriguez B., Landay A., Martin J., Sinclair E., Asher A.I., Deeks S.G., Douek D.C., Brenchley J.M. Plasma levels of bacterial DNA correlate with immune activation and the magnitude of immune restoration in persons with antiretroviral-treated HIV infection. J. Infect. Dis., 2009, Vol. 199, no. 8, pp. 1177-1185.

100. Jong E., Louw S., Meijers J.C.M., de Kruif M.D., ten Cate H., Buller H.R., Mulder J.W., van Gorp E.C.M. The hemostatic balance in HIV-infected patients with and without antiretroviral therapy: partial restoration with antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Patient Care Stds, 2009, Vol. 23, no. 12, pp. 1001-1007.

101. Judge A.D., Zhang X.H., Fujii H., Surh C.D., Sprent J. Interleukin 15 controls both proliferation and survival of a subset of memory-phenotype CD8 (+) T cells. J. Exp. Med., 2002, Vol. 196, no. 7, pp. 935-946.

102. Kalinkovich A., Engelmann H., Harpaz N., Burstein R., Barak V., Kalickman I., Wallach D., Bentwich Z. Elevated serum levels of soluble tumor necrosis factor receptors (sTNF-R) in patients with HIV-infection. Clin. Exp. Immunol., 1992, Vol. 89, no. 3, pp. 351-355.

103. Kamat A., Lyons J.L., Misra V., Uno H., Morgello S., Singer E.J., Gabuzda D. Monocyte activation markers in cerebrospinal fluid associated with impaired neurocognitive testing in advanced HIV infection. JAIDS, 2012, Vol. 60, no. 3, pp. 234-243.

104. Kamath A.T., Sheasby C.E., Tough D.F. Dendritic cells and NK cells stimulate bystander T cell activation in response to TLR agonists through secretion of IFN-alpha beta and IFN-gamma. J. Immunol., 2005, Vol. 174, no. 2, pp. 767-776.

105. Kanda T., Fujii H., Tani T., Murakami H., Suda T., Sakai Y., Ono T., Hatakeyama K. Intestinal fatty acid-binding protein is a useful diagnostic marker for mesenteric infarction in humans. Gastroenterology, 1996, Vol. 110, no. 2, pp. 339-343.

106. Keating S.M., Golub E.T., Nowicki M., Young M., Anastos K., Crystal H., Cohen M.H., Zhang J., Greenblatt R.M., Desai S., Wu S., Landay A.L., Gange S.J., Norris P.J., Women’s Interagency H.I.V.S. The effect of HIV infection and HAART on inflammatory biomarkers in a population-based cohort of women. AIDS, 2011, Vol. 25, no. 15, pp. 1823-1832.

107. Kelesidis T., Kendall M.A., Yang O.O., Hodis H.N., Currier J.S. Biomarkers of Microbial Translocation and Macrophage Activation: Association With Progression of Subclinical Atherosclerosis in HIV-1 Infection. J. Infect. Dis., 2012, Vol. 206, no. 10, pp. 1558-1567.

108. Kieper W.C., Troy A., Burghardt J.T., Ramsey C., Lee J.Y., Jiang H.Q., Dummer W., Shen H., Cebra J.J., Surh C.D. Cutting edge: Recent immune status determines the source of antigens that drive homeostatic T cell expansion. J. Immunol., 2005, Vol. 174, no. 6, pp. 3158-3163.

109. Klatt N.R., Estes J.D., Sun X., Ortiz A.M., Barber J.S., Harris L.D., Cervasi B., Yokomizo L.K., Pan L., Vinton C.L., Tabb B., Canary L.A., Dang Q., Hirsch V.M., Alter G., Belkaid Y., Lifson J.D., Silvestri G., Milner J.D., Paiardini M., Haddad E.K., Brenchley J.M. Loss of mucosal CD103+ DCs and IL-17+ and IL-22+ lymphocytes is associated with mucosal damage in SIV infection. Mucosal Immunol., 2012, Vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 646-657.

110. Klatt N.R., Funderburg N.T., Brenchley J.M. Microbial translocation, immune activation, and HIV disease. Trends Microbiol., 2013, Vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 6-13.

111. Kovacs J.A., Lempicki R.A., Sidorov I.A., Adelsberger J.W., Herpin B., Metcalf J.A., Sereti I., Polis M.A., Davey R.T., Tavel J., Falloon J., Stevens R., Lambert L., Dewar R., Schwartzentruber D.J., Anver M.R., Baseler M.W., Masur H., Dimitrov D.S., Lane H.C. Identification of dynamically distinct subpopulations of T lymphocytes that are differentially affected by HIV. J. Exp. Med., 2001, Vol. 194, no. 12, pp. 1731-1741.

112. Kristiansen M., Graversen J.H., Jacobsen C., Sonne O., Hoffman H.J., Law S.K., Moestrup S.K. Identification of the haemoglobin scavenger receptor. Nature, 2001, Vol. 409, no. 6817, pp. 198-201.

113. Kuller L.H., Tracy R., Belloso W., De Wit S., Drummond F., Lane H.C., Ledergerber B., Lundgren J., Neuhaus J., Nixon D., Paton N.I., Neaton J.D., Group I.S.S. Inflammatory and coagulation biomarkers and mortality in patients with HIV infection. PLoS Med., 2008, Vol. 5, e203. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0050203.

114. Kuri-Cervantes L., de Oca G.S.M., Avila-Rios S., Hernandez-Juan R., Reyes-Teran G. Activation of NK cells is associated with HIV-1 disease progression. J. Leuk. Biol., 2014, Vol. 96, no. 1, pp. 7-16.

115. Lackner A.A., Lederman M.M., Rodriguez B. HIV pathogenesis: the host. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med., 2012, Vol. 2, a007005. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a007005.

116. Lantz M., Malik S., Slevin M.L., Olsson I. Infusion of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) causes an increase in circulating TNF-binding protein in humans. Cytokine, 1990, Vol. 2, no. 6, pp. 402-406.

117. Lee S., Chung Y.S., Yoon C.H., Shin Y., Kim S., Choi B.S., Kim S.S. Interferon-inducible protein 10 (IP-10) is associated with viremia of early HIV-1 infection in Korean patients. J. Med. Virol., 2015, Vol. 87, no. 5, pp. 782-789.

118. Leon A., Leal L., Torres B., Lucero C., Inciarte A., Arnedo M., Plana M., Vila J., Gatell J.M., Garcia F. Association of microbial translocation biomarkers with clinical outcome in controllers HIV-infected patients. AIDS, 2015, Vol. 29, no. 6, pp. 675-681.

119. Lien E., Aukrust P., Sundan A., Muller F., Froland S.S., Espevik T. Elevated levels of serum-soluble CD14 in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection: Correlation to disease progression and clinical events. Blood, 1998, Vol. 92, no. 6, pp. 2084-2092.

120. Liu M., Guo S., Hibbert J.M., Jain V., Singh N., Wilson N.O., Stiles J.K. CXCL10/IP-10 in infectious diseases pathogenesis and potential therapeutic implications. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev, 2011, Vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 121-130.

121. Liu Z., Cumberland W.G., Hultin L.E., Kaplan A.H., Detels R., Giorgi J.V. CD8 (+) T-lymphocyte activation in HIV-1 disease reflects an aspect of pathogenesis distinct from viral burden and immunodeficiency. J. Acq. Immun. Def. Synd., 1998, Vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 332-340.

122. Loetscher M., Gerber B., Loetscher P., Jones S.A., Piali L., Clark-Lewis I., Baggiolini M., Moser B. Chemokine receptor specific for IP10 and Mig: structure, function, and expression in activated T-lymphocytes. J. Exp. Med., 1996, Vol. 184, no. 3, pp. 963-969.

123. Luster A.D., Ravetch J.V. Biochemical characterization of a gamma interferon-inducible cytokine (IP-10). J. Exp. Med., 1987, Vol. 166, no. 4, pp. 1084-1097.

124. Manel N., Hogstad B., Wang Y., Levy D.E., Unutmaz D., Littman D.R. A cryptic sensor for HIV-1 activates antiviral innate immunity in dendritic cells. Nature, 2010, Vol. 467, no. 7312, pp. 214-217.

125. Marchetti G., Gori A., Casabianca A., Magnani M., Franzetti F., Clerici M., Perno C.F., Monforte A., Galli M., Meroni L. Comparative analysis of T-cell turnover and homeostatic parameters in HIV-infected patients with discordant immune-virological responses to HAART. AIDS, 2006, Vol. 20, no. 13, pp. 1727-1736.

126. Marchetti G., Bellistri G.M., Borghi E., Tincati C., Ferramosca S., La Francesca M., Morace G., Gori A., Monforte A.D. Microbial translocation is associated with sustained failure in CD4+ T-cell reconstitution in HIV-infected patients on long-term highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS, 2008, Vol. 22, no. 15, pp. 2035-2038.

127. Marchetti G., Cozzi-Lepri A., Merlini E., Bellistri G.M., Castagna A., Galli M., Verucchi G., Antinori A., Costantini A., Giacometti A., di Caro A., Monforte A.D., Grp I.F.S. Microbial translocation predicts disease progression of HIV-infected antiretroviral-naive patients with high CD4 (+) cell count. AIDS, 2011, Vol. 25, no. 11, pp. 1385-1394.

128. Marlink R., Kanki P., Thior I., Travers K., Eisen G., Siby T., Traore I., Hsieh C.C., Dia M.C., Gueye E., Hellinger J., Gueyendiaye A., Sankale J.L., Ndoye I., Mboup S., Essex M. Reduced rate of disease development after HIV-2 infection as compared to HIV-1. Science, 1994, Vol. 265, no. 5178, pp. 1587-1590.

129. Martin B., Bourgeois C., Dautigny N., Lucas B. On the role of MHC class II molecules in the survival and lymphopenia-induced proliferation of peripheral CD4 (+) T cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2003, Vol. 100, no. 10, pp. 6021-6026.

130. Martin G.E., Gouillou M., Hearps A.C., Angelovich T.A., Cheng A.C., Lynch F., Cheng W.J., Paukovics G., Palmer C.S., Novak R.M., Jaworowski A., Landay A.L., Crowe S.M. Age-associated changes in monocyte and innate immune activation markers occur more rapidly in HIV infected women. PLoS One, 2013, Vol. 8, no. 1, e55279. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0055279.

131. Martinez F.O., Helming L., Gordon S. Alternative activation of macrophages: an immunologic functional perspective. Annu. Rev. Immunol., 2009, Vol. 27, pp. 451-483.

132. McCune J.M., Hanley M.B., Cesar D., Halvorsen R., Hoh R., Schmidt D., Wieder E., Deeks S., Siler S., Neese R., Hellerstein M. Factors influencing T-cell turnover in HIV-1-seropositive patients. J. Clin. Invest., 2000, Vol. 105, no. 5, pp. R1-8.

133. McKibben R.A., Margolick J.B., Grinspoon S., Li X., Palella F.J., Jr., Kingsley L.A., Witt M.D., George R.T., Jacobson L.P., Budoff M., Tracy R.P., Brown T.T., Post W.S. Elevated levels of monocyte activation markers are associated with subclinical atherosclerosis in men with and those without HIV infection. J. Infect. Dis., 2015, Vol. 211, no. 8, pp. 1219-1228.

134. Meier A., Alter G., Frahm N., Sidhu H., Li B., Bayhi A., Teigen N., Streeck H., Stellbrink H.J., Hellman J., van Lunzen J., Altfeld M. MyD88-dependent immune activation mediated by human immunodeficiency virus type 1-encoded toll-like receptor ligands. J. Virol., 2007, Vol. 81, no. 15, pp. 8180-8191.

135. Mendez-Lagares G., Romero-Sanchez M.C., Ruiz-Mateos E., Genebat M., Ferrando-Martinez S., Munoz-Fernandez M.A., Pacheco Y.M., Leal M. Long-term suppressive combined antiretroviral treatment does not normalize the serum level of soluble CD14. J. Infect. Dis., 2013, Vol. 207, no. 8, pp. 1221-1225.

136. Migueles S.A., Laborico A.C., Shupert W.L., Sabbaghian M.S., Rabin R., Hallahan C.W., Van Baarle D., Kostense S., Miedema F., McLaughlin M., Ehler L., Metcalf J., Liu S.Y., Connors M. HIV-specific CD8 (+) T cell proliferation is coupled to perforin expression and is maintained in nonprogressors. Nat. Immunol., 2002, Vol. 3, no. 11, pp. 1061-1068.

137. Mildvan D., Spritzler J., Grossberg S.E., Fahey J.L., Johnston D.M., Schock B.R., Kagan J. Serum neopterin, an immune activation marker, independently predicts disease progression in advanced HIV-1 infection. Clin. Infect. Dis., 2005, Vol. 40, no. 6, pp. 853-858.

138. Min B., Yamane H., Hu-Li J., Paul W.E. Spontaneous and homeostatic proliferation of CD4 T cells are regulated by different mechanisms. J. Immunol., 2005, Vol. 174, no. 10, pp. 6039-6044.

139. Mohan M., Kaushal D., Aye P.P., Alvarez X., Veazey R.S., Lackner A.A. Focused examination of the intestinal epithelium reveals transcriptional signatures consistent with disturbances in enterocyte maturation and differentiation during the course of SIV infection. PloS One, 2013, Vol. 8, e60122.

140. Mohri H., Perelson A.S., Tung K., Ribeiro R.M., Ramratnam B., Markowitz M., Kost R., Hurley A., Weinberger L., Cesar D., Hellerstein M.K., Ho D.D. Increased turnover of T lymphocytes in HIV-1 infection and its reduction by antiretroviral therapy. J. Exp. Med., 2001, Vol. 194, no. 9, pp. 1277-1287.

141. Moller H.J. Soluble CD163. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest., 2012, Vol. 72, no. 1, pp. 1-13.

142. Moniuszko M., Kowal K., Rusak M., Pietruczuk M., Dabrowska M., Bodzenta-Lukaszyk A. Monocyte CD163 and CD36 expression in human whole blood and isolated mononuclear cell samples: influence of different anticoagulants. Clin. Vaccine Immunol., 2006, Vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 704-707.

143. Murali-Krishna K., Lau L.L., Sambhara S., Lemonnier F., Altman J., Ahmed R. Persistence of memory CD8 T cells in MHC class I-deficient mice. Science, 1999, Vol. 286, no. 5443, pp. 1377-1381.

144. Nazli A., Chan O., Dobson-Belaire W.N., Ouellet M., Tremblay M.J., Gray-Owen S.D., Arsenault A.L., Kaushic C. Exposure to HIV-1 directly impairs mucosal epithelial barrier integrity allowing microbial translocation. PloS Pathogens, 2010, Vol. 6, e1000852. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000852.

145. Neuhaus J., Jacobs D.R., Baker J.V., Calmy A., Duprez D., La Rosa A., Kuller L.H., Pett S.L., Ristola M., Ross M.J., Shlipak M.G., Tracy R., Neaton J.D., Grp I.R., Grp S.R., Grp M.R., Adults C.A.D.Y. Markers of inflammation, coagulation, and renal function are elevated in adults with HIV infection. J. Infect. Dis., 2010, Vol. 201, no. 12, pp. 1788-1795.

146. Neujahr D.C., Chen C.Q., Huang X., Markmann J.F., Cobbold S., Waldmann H., Sayegh M.H., Hancock W.W., Turka L.A. Accelerated memory cell homeostasis during T cell depletion and approaches to overcome it. J. Immunol., 2006, Vol. 176, no. 8, pp. 4632-4639.

147. Norris S., Coleman A., Kuri-Cervantes L., Bower M., Nelson M., Goodier M.R. PD-1 expression on natural killer cells and CD8 (+) T cells during chronic HIV-1 infection. Viral Immunol., 2012, Vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 329-332.

148. Novati S., Sacchi P., Cima S., Zuccaro V., Columpsi P., Pagani L., Filice G., Bruno R. General issues on microbial translocation in HIV-infected patients. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci., 2015, Vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 866-878.

149. Okoye A.A., Picker L.J. CD4 (+) T-cell depletion in HIV infection: mechanisms of immunological failure. Immunol. Rev., 2013, Vol. 254, no. 1, pp. 54-64.

150. Ostler T., Pircher H., Ehl S. «Bystander» recruitment of systemic memory T cells delays the immune response to respiratory virus infection. Eur. J. Immunol., 2003, Vol. 33, no. 7, pp. 1839-1848.

151. Paiardini M., Muller-Trutwin M. HIV-associated chronic immune activation. Immunol. Rev., 2013, Vol. 254, pp. 78-101.

152. Paolini R., Bernardini G., Molfetta R., Santoni A. NK cells and interferons. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev., 2015, Vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 113-120.

153. Pelsers M.M.A.L., Namiot Z., Kisielewski W., Namiot A., Januszkiewicz M., Hermens W.T., Glatz J.F.C. Intestinal-type and liver-type fatty acid-binding protein in the intestine. Tissue distribution and clinical utility. Clin. Biochem., 2003, Vol. 36, no. 7, pp. 529-535.

154. Penna G., Sozzani S., Adorini L. Cutting edge: selective usage of chemokine receptors by plasmacytoid dendritic cells. J. Immunol., 2001, Vol. 167, no. 4, pp. 1862-1866.

155. Perkins M.R., Bartha I., Timmer J.K., Liebner J.C., Wolinsky D., Gunthard H.F., Hauser C., Bernasconi E., Hoffmann M., Calmy A., Battegay M., Telenti A., Douek D.C., Fellay J., Study S.H.C. The interplay between host genetic variation, viral replication, and microbial translocation in untreated HIV-infected individuals. J. Infect. Dis., 2015, Vol. 212, no. 4, pp. 578-584.

156. Pijls K.E., Jonkers D.M.A.E., Elamin E.E., Masclee A.A.M., Koek G.H. Intestinal epithelial barrier function in liver cirrhosis: an extensive review of the literature. Liver Int., 2013, Vol. 33, no. 10, pp. 1457-1469.

157. Pinckard J.K., Sheehan K.C.F., Arthur C.D., Schreiber R.D. Constitutive shedding of both p55 and p75 murine TNF receptors in vivo. J. Immunol., 1997, Vol. 158, no. 8, pp. 3869-3873.

158. Pontrelli G., Martino A.M., Tchidjou H.K., Citton R., Mora N., Rava L., Tozzi A.E., Palma P., Muraca M., Franco E., Rossi P., Bernardi S. HIV is associated with thrombophilia and high D-dimer in children and adolescents. Aids, 2010, Vol. 24, no. 8, pp. 1145-1151.

159. Ramirez L.A., Arango T.A., Thompson E., Naji M., Tebas P., Boyer J.D. High IP-10 levels decrease T cell function in HIV-1-infected individuals on ART. J. Leuk. Biol., 2014, Vol. 96, no. 6, pp. 1055-1063.

160. Relucio K.I., Beernink H.T., Chen D., Israelski D.M., Kim R., Holodniy M. Proteomic analysis of serum cytokine levels in response to highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). J. Proteome Res., 2005, Vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 27-231.

161. Ridker P.M. High-sensitivity C-reactive protein, inflammation, and cardiovascular risk: From concept to clinical practice to clinical benefit. Am. Heart J., 2004, Vol. 148, no. 1, pp. S19-S26.

162. Rodger A.J., Fox Z., Lundgren J.D., Kuller L.H., Boesecke C., Gey D., Skoutelis A., Goetz M.B., Phillips A.N., Management I.S. Activation and coagulation biomarkers are independent predictors of the development of opportunistic disease in patients with HIV infection. J. Infect. Dis., 2009, Vol. 200, no. 6, pp. 973-983.

163. Roe B., Coughlan S., Hassan J., Grogan A., Farrell G., Norris S., Bergin C., Hall W.W. Elevated serum levels of interferon-gamma-inducible protein-10 in patients coinfected with hepatitis C virus and HIV. J. Infect. Dis., 2007, Vol. 196, no. 7, pp. 1053-1057.

164. Romagnani P., Annunziato F., Lazzeri E., Cosmi L., Beltrame C., Lasagni L., Galli G., Francalanci M., Manetti R., Marra F., Vanini V., Maggi E., Romagnani S. Interferon-inducible protein 10, monokine induced by interferon gamma, and interferon-inducible T-cell alpha chemoattractant are produced by thymic epithelial cells and attract T-cell receptor (TCR) alphabeta+ CD8+ single-positive T cells, TCRgammadelta+ T cells, and natural killer-type cells in human thymus. Blood, 2001, Vol. 97, no. 3, pp. 601-607.

165. Romagnani P., Lazzeri E., Lasagni L., Mavilia C., Beltrame C., Francalanci M., Rotondi M., Annunziato F., Maurenzig L., Cosmi L., Galli G., Salvadori M., Maggi E., Serio M. IP-10 and Mig production by glomerular cells in human proliferative glomerulonephritis and regulation by nitric oxide. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., 2002, Vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 53-64.

166. Romagnani P., Crescioli C. CXCL10: a candidate biomarker in transplantation. Clin. Chim. Acta, 2012, Vol. 413, no. 17-18, pp. 1364-1373.

167. Sachsenberg N., Perelson A.S., Yerly S., Schockmel G.A., Leduc D., Hirschel B., Perrin L. Turnover of CD4 (+) and CD8 (+) T lymphocytes in HIV-1 infection as measured by Ki-67 antigen. J. Exp. Med., 1998, Vol. 187, no. 8, pp. 1295-1303.

168. Sandler N.G., Wand H., Roque A., Law M., Nason M.C., Nixon D.E., Pedersen C., Ruxrungtham K., Lewin S.R., Emery S., Neaton J.D., Brenchley J.M., Deeks S.G., Sereti I., Douek D.C., Grp I.S.S. Plasma Levels of Soluble CD14 Independently Predict Mortality in HIV Infection. J. Infect. Dis., 2011, Vol. 203, no. 6, pp. 780-790.

169. Schaer D.J., Boretti F.S., Schoedon G., Schaffner A. Induction of the CD163-dependent haemoglobin uptake by macrophages as a novel anti-inflammatory action of glucocorticoids. Br. J. Haematol., 2002, Vol. 119, no. 1, pp. 239-243.

170. Sedger L.M., McDermott M.F. TNF and TNF-receptors: From mediators of cell death and inflammation to therapeutic giants – past, present and future. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev., 2014, Vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 453-472.

171. Sharpstone D., Neild P., Crane R., Taylor C., Hodgson C., Sherwood R., Gazzard B., Bjarnason I. Small intestinal transit, absorption, and permeability in patients with AIDS with and without diarrhoea. Gut, 1999, Vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 70-76.

172. Shive C.L., Biancotto A., Funderburg N.T., Pilch-Cooper H.A., Valdez H., Margolis L., Sieg S.F., McComsey G.A., Rodriguez B., Lederman M.M. HIV-1 is not a major driver of increased plasma IL-6 levels in chronic HIV-1 disease. JAIDS, 2012, Vol. 61, no. 2, pp. 145-152.

173. Shive C.L., Jiang W., Anthony D.D., Lederman M.M. Soluble CD14 is a nonspecific marker of monocyte activation. AIDS, 2015, Vol. 29, no. 10, pp. 1263-1265.

174. Silvestri G., Sodora D.L., Koup R.A., Paiardini M., O’Neil S.P., McClure H.M., Staprans S.I., Feinberg M.B. Nonpathogenic SIV infection of sooty mangabeys is characterized by limited bystander immunopathology despite chronic high-level viremia. Immunity, 2003, Vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 441-452.

175. Simmons R.P., Scully E.P., Groden E.E., Arnold K.B., Chang J.J., Lane K., Lifson J., Rosenberg E., Lauffenburger D.A., Altfeld M. HIV-1 infection induces strong production of IP-10 through TLR7/9-dependent pathways. AIDS, 2013, Vol. 27, no. 16, pp. 2505-2517.

176. Smith A.J., Schacker T.W., Reilly C.S., Haase A.T. A role for syndecan-1 and claudin-2 in microbial translocation during HIV-1 infection. JAIDS, 2010, Vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 306-315.

177. Stacey A.R., Norris P.J., Qin L., Haygreen E.A., Taylor E., Heitman J., Lebedeva M., DeCamp A., Li D.F., Grove D., Self S.G., Borrow P. Induction of a striking systemic cytokine cascade prior to peak viremia in acute human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection, in contrast to more modest and delayed responses in acute hepatitis B and C vrus infections. J. Virol., 2009, Vol. 83, no. 8, pp. 3719-3733.

178. Stevenson M., Stanwick T.L., Dempsey M.P., Lamonica C.A. HIV-1 replication is controlled at the level of T-cell activation and proviral integration. Embo J., 1990, Vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 1551-1560.

179. Stylianou E., Aukrust P., Bendtzen K., Muller F., Froland S.S. Interferons and interferon (IFN)-inducible protein 10 during highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) – possible immunosuppressive role of IFN-alpha in HIV infection. Clin. Exp. Immunol., 2000, Vol. 119, no. 3, pp. 479-485.

180. Subramanian S., Tawakol A., Burdo T.H., Abbara S., Wei J., Vijayakumar J., Corsini E., Abdelbaky A., Zanni M.V., Hoffmann U., Williams K.C., Lo J., Grinspoon S.K. Arterial inflammation in patients with HIV. JAMA, 2012, Vol. 308, no. 4, pp. 379-386.

181. Sulahian T.H., Hogger P., Wahner A.E., Wardwell K., Goulding N.J., Sorg C., Droste A., Stehling M., Wallace P.K., Morganelli P.M., Guyre P.M. Human monocytes express CD163, which is upregulated by IL-10 and identical to p155. Cytokine, 2000, Vol. 12, no. 9, pp. 1312-1321.

182. Surh C.D., Sprent J. Homeostasis of naive and memory T cells. Immunity, 2008, Vol. 29, no. 6, pp. 848-862.

183. Swain S.L., Hu H., Huston G. Class II-independent generation of CD4 memory T cells from effectors. Science, 1999, Vol. 286, no. 5443, pp. 1381-1383.

184. Takeda S., Rodewald H.R., Arakawa H., Bluethmann H., Shimizu T. MHC class II molecules are not required for survival of newly generated CD4+ T cells, but affect their long-term life span. Immunity, 1996, Vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 217-228.

185. Tan J.T., Dudl E., LeRoy E., Murray R., Sprent J., Weinberg K.I., Surh C.D. IL-7 is critical for homeostatic proliferation and survival of naive T cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2001, Vol. 98, no. 15, pp. 8732-8737.

186. Tanchot C., Lemonnier F.A., Perarnau B., Freitas A.A., Rocha B. Differential requirements for survival and proliferation of CD8 naive or memory T cells. Science, 1997, Vol. 276, no. 5321, pp. 2057-2062.

187. Targan S.R., Landers C.J., Yang H.Y., Lodes M.J., Cong Y.Z., Papadakis K.A., Vasiliauskas E., Elson C.O., Hershberg R.M. Antibodies to CBir1 flagellin define a unique response that is associated independently with complicated Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology, 2005, Vol. 128, no. 7, pp. 2020-2028.

188. Tchao N.K., Turka L.A. Lymphodepletion and homeostatic proliferation: Implications for transplantation. Am. J. Transplant., 2012, Vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 1079-1090.

189. Thieblemont N., Weiss L., Sadeghi H.M., Estcourt C., HaeffnerCavaillon N. CD14 (low) CD16 (high): A cytokine-producing monocyte subset which expands during human immunodeficiency virus infection. Eur. J. Immunol., 1995, Vol. 25, no. 12, pp. 3418-3424.

190. Tiemessen M.M., Jagger A.L., Evans H.G., van Herwijnen M.J., John S., Taams L.S. CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells induce alternative activation of human monocytes/macrophages. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2007, Vol. 104, no. 49, pp. 19446-19451.

191. Tilling R., Kinloch S., Goh L.E., Cooper D., Perrin L., Lampe F., Zaunders J., Hoen B., Tsoukas C., Andersson J., Janossy G., Grp Q.S. Parallel decline of CD8+/CD38++ T cells and viraemia in response to quadruple highly active antiretroviral therapy in primary HIV infection. AIDS, 2002, Vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 589-596.

192. Tough D.F., Borrow P., Sprent J. Induction of bystander T cell proliferation by viruses and type I interferon in vivo. Science, 1996, Vol. 272, no. 5270, pp. 1947-1950.

193. Tough D.F., Sprent J. Anti-viral immunity: Spotting virus-specific T cells. Curr. Biol., 1998, Vol. 8, no. 14, pp. R498-R501.

194. Triant V.A., Lee H., Hadigan C., Grinspoon S.K. Increased acute myocardial infarction rates and cardiovascular risk factors among patients with human immunodeficiency virus disease. J. Clin. Endocr. Metab., 2007, Vol. 92, no. 7, pp. 2506-2512.

195. Trzonkowski P., Mysliwska J., Pawelec G., Mysliwski A. From bench to bedside and back: the SENIEUR Protocol and the eficacy of influenza vaccination in the elderly. Biogerontology, 2009, Vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 83-94.

196. Unutmaz D., Pileri P., Abrignani S. Antigen-independent activation of naive and memory resting T-cells by a cytokine combination. J. Exp. Med., 1994, Vol. 180, no. 3, pp. 1159-1164.

197. Uysal H.K., Sohrabi P., Habip Z., Saribas S., Kocazeybek E., Seyhan F., Caliskan R., Bonabi E., Yuksel P., Birinci I., Uysal O., Kocazeybek B. Neopterin and soluble CD14 levels as indicators of immune activation in cases with indeterminate pattern and true positive HIV-1 infection. PLoS One, 2016, Vol. 11, no. 3, e0152258.

198. Vallelian F., Schaer C.A., Kaempfer T., Gehrig P., Duerst E., Schoedon G., Schaer D.J. Glucocorticoid treatment skews human monocyte differentiation into a hemoglobin-clearance phenotype with enhanced heme-iron recycling and antioxidant capacity. Blood, 2010, Vol. 116, no. 24, pp. 5347-5356.

199. van Snick J. Interleukin-6 – an Overview. Annu. Rev. Immunol., 1990, Vol. 8, no. pp. 253-278.

200. Wang L., Llorente C., Hartmann P., Yang A.M., Chen P., Schnabl B. Methods to determine intestinal permeability and bacterial translocation during liver disease. J. Immunol. Methods, 2015, Vol. 421, no. pp. 44-53.

201. Weaver L.K., Pioli P.A., Wardwell K., Vogel S.N., Guyre P.M. Up-regulation of human monocyte CD163 upon activation of cell-surface Toll-like receptors. J. Leuk. Biol., 2007, Vol. 81, no. 3, pp. 663-671.

202. Werner E.R., Werner-Felmayer G., Fuchs D., Hausen A., Reibnegger G., Wels G., Yim J.J., Pfleiderer W., Wachter H. 6-Pyruvoyl tetrahydropterin synthase assay in extracts of cultured human cells using high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection of biopterin. J. Chromatogr., 1991, Vol. 570, no. 1, pp. 43-50.

203. Wiercinska-Drapalo A., Flisiak R., Jaroszewicz J., Prokopowicz D. Increased plasma transforming growth factor-beta(1) is associated with disease progression in HIV-1-infected patients. Viral Immunol., 2004, Vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 109-113.

204. Williams L., Jarai G., Smith A., Finan P. IL-10 expression profiling in human monocytes. J. Leuk. Biol., 2002, Vol. 72, no. 4, pp. 800-809.

205. Wilson E.M.P., Singh A., Hullsiek K.H., Gibson D., Henry W.K., Lichtenstein K., Onen N.F., Kojic E., Patel P., Brooks J.T., Sereti I., Baker J.V., Era U.N.H.H.A. Monocyte-activation phenotypes are associated with biomarkers of inflammation and coagulation in chronic HIV infection. J. Infect. Dis., 2014, Vol. 210, no. 9, pp. 1396-1406.

206. Wirleitner B., Schroecksnadel K., Winkler C., Fuchs D. Neopterin in HIV-1 infection. Mol. Immunol., 2005, Vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 183-194.

207. Yan N., Regalado-Magdos A.D., Stiggelbout B., Lee-Kirsch M.A., Lieberman J. The cytosolic exonuclease TREX1 inhibits the innate immune response to human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Nat. Immunol., 2010, Vol. 11, no. 11, pp. 1005-1013.

208. Yoshida H., Hashizume M., Suzuki M., Mihara M. Anti-IL-6 receptor antibody suppressed T cell activation by inhibiting IL-2 production and inducing regulatory T cells. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 2010, Vol. 634, no. 1-3, pp. 178-183.

209. Zack J.A., Arrigo S.J., Weitsman S.R., Go A.S., Haislip A., Chen I.S.Y. HIV-1 entry into quiescent primary lymphocytes – molecular analysis reveals a labile, latent viral structure. Cell, 1990, Vol. 61, no. 2, pp. 213-222.

210. Zangerle R., Gallati H., Sarcletti M., Wachter H., Fuchs D. Tumor necrosis factor alpha and soluble tumor necrosis factor receptors in individuals with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Immunol. Lett., 1994, Vol. 41, no. 2-3, pp. 229-234.

211. Zangerle R., Gallati H., Sarcletti M., Weiss G., Denz H., Wachter H., Fuchs D. Increased serum concentrations of soluble tumor necrosis factor receptors in HIV-infected individuals are associated with immune activation. JAIDS, 1994, Vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 79-85.

212. Zangerle R., Steinhuber S., Sarcletti M., Dierich M.P., Wachter H., Fuchs D., Most J. Serum HIV-1 RNA levels compared to soluble markers of immune activation to predict disease progression in HIV-1-infected individuals. Int. Arch. Allergy Imm., 1998, Vol. 116, no. 3, pp. 228-239.

213. Zapater P., Frances R., Gonzalez-Navajas J.M., de la Hoz M.A., Moreu R., Pascual S., Monfort D., Montoliju S., Vila C., Escudero A., Torras X., Girera I., Llanos L., Guarner-Argente C., Palazon J.M., Carnicer F., Bellot P., Guarner C., Planas R., Sola R., Serra M.A., Munoz C., Perez-Mateo M., Such J. Serum and ascitic fluid bacterial DNA: a new independent prognostic factor in noninfected patients with cirrhosis. Hepatology, 2008, Vol. 48, no. 6, pp. 1924-1931.

214. Zhang X., Sun S., Hwang I., Tough D.F., Sprent J. Potent and selective stimulation of memory-phenotype CD8+ T cells in vivo by IL-15. Immunity, 1998, Vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 591-599.

215. Zwadlo G., Voegeli R., Schulze Osthoff K., Sorg C. A monoclonal antibody to a novel differentiation antigen on human macrophages associated with the down-regulatory phase of the inflammatory process. Exp. Cell. Biol., 1987, Vol. 55, no. 6, pp. 295-304.