<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.3 20210610//EN" "JATS-journalpublishing1-3.dtd">
<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xml:lang="ru"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">mimmun</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="ru">Медицинская иммунология</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>Medical Immunology (Russia)</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">1563-0625</issn><issn pub-type="epub">2313-741X</issn><publisher><publisher-name>SPb RAACI</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.15789/1563-0625-TAA-3152</article-id><article-id custom-type="elpub" pub-id-type="custom">mimmun-3152</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>ОБЗОРЫ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>REVIEWS</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Опухолегенез как аутоиммунный процесс</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>Tumorigenesis as an autoimmune process</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1756-1782</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Козлов</surname><given-names>В. А.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Kozlov</surname><given-names>V. A.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Козлов Владимир Александрович – д.м.н., профессор, академик РАН, заведующий лабораторией клинической иммунопатологии, научный консультант</p><p>Новосибирск</p><p> </p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Kozlov Vladimir. A., PhD, MD (Medicine), Professor, Full Member, Russian Academy of Sciences, Head, Laboratory of Clinical Immunopathology, Scientific Advisor</p><p>Novosibirsk</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">vakoz40@yandex.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff-1"><aff xml:lang="ru">ФГБНУ «Научно-исследовательский институт фундаментальной и клинической иммунологии»<country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en">Research Institute of Fundamental and Clinical Immunology<country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2025</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>07</day><month>07</month><year>2025</year></pub-date><volume>27</volume><issue>4</issue><fpage>703</fpage><lpage>712</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright &amp;#x00A9; Козлов В.А., 2025</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2025</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Козлов В.А.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Kozlov V.A.</copyright-holder><license license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://www.mimmun.ru/mimmun/article/view/3152">https://www.mimmun.ru/mimmun/article/view/3152</self-uri><abstract><p>Данные, представленные в статье, обоснованно говорят о том, что реакции иммунной системы в ходе развития аутоиммунной патологии и в процессе опухолевого роста, по существу, являются аутоиммунными реакциями, направленными на аутоантигены тканей различных органов и опухоль-ассоциированные антигены. Последние, помимо самой опухоли, экспрессируются клетками нормальных органов и тканей. При этом, различия характеризуются недостаточной активностью клеток супрессоров в первом варианте, и повышенной активностью во втором варианте. Следует учитывать возможность идентичности механизмов реагирования лимфоцитов как при аутоиммунной патологии, так и при онкогенезе. Положение об аутоиммунности опухолевого процесса является принципиально важным моментом с точки зрения биологии опухолевого роста, а с точки зрения медицины оно может стать вектором поиска новых медикаментозных воздействий, направленных на подавление супрессорной активности регуляторных клеток без риска индуцировать аутоиммунные заболевания. На основании имеющихся литературных данных можно говорить о том, что процесс формирования аутоиммунной патологии основан на нарушении механизмов иммунной толерантности к аутоантигенам. При этом, данные механизмы касаются как центральной толерантности, так и периферической толерантности. В первом случае, Т-клетки с высокоаффинным рецептором с активностью против аутоантигенов не подвергаются негативной селекции в тимусе и мигрируют на периферию с готовностью индуцировать аутоиммунные процессы. При этом, на периферии Т-регуляторные супрессорные клетки не срабатывают в отношении подавления их активности. Налицо нарушение механизмов как центральной, так и периферической толерантности. В случае опухолевого роста показано, что подавление активности Т-регуляторных клеток заканчивается развитием аутоиммунной патологии на фоне торможения роста опухоли. Последние данные мировой литературы позволяют говорить о направленности реакции клеток иммунной системы против опухоль-ассоциированных антигенов, а не против опухоль-специфических антигенов. Следует предположить, что эти Т-клетки эффекторы против опухоль-ассоциированных антигенов оказались на периферии также после миграции из тимуса, не пройдя негативной селекции. Однако на периферии их противоопухолевая активность была подавлена Т регуляторными клетками. По-видимому, следует считать, что реакция иммунной системы на рост опухоли носит характеристики аутоиммунной реакции на опухоль-ассоциированные антигены с индукцией механизмов ее активности с помощью Т регуляторных клеток иммунной системы.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="en"><p>The data presented in the article reasonably indicate that the immune system responses during the development of autoimmune pathology and in the process of tumor growth are, in fact, autoimmune responses directed at autoantigens of various tissues and organs, and tumor-associated antigens. The latter, in addition to the tumor itself, are also expressed by the cells of normal organs and tissues. At the same time, the differences are characterized by insufficient activity of suppressor cells in the first variant, and enhanced activity in the second variant. One should take into account a potential identity of the mechanisms of lymphocyte responses, both in autoimmune pathology and in oncogenesis. The concept of autoimmunity promoting the tumor development is a fundamentally important point, with regard of the tumor growth biology. In view of medicine, this approach may provide a vector for searching novel drug effects aimed at inhibiting the suppressor activity of regulatory cells, without higher risk of inducing autoimmune disorders. On the basis of available literature data, one may suggest that the formation of autoimmune pathology is caused by the impaired mechanisms of immune tolerance to autoantigens. Moreover, these mechanisms concern both central tolerance and peripheral tolerance. In the first case, T cells bearing high-affinity receptors directed against autoantigens are not subject to negative selection in the thymus and migrate to the periphery, being ready to induce autoimmune processes. At the same time, peripheral T regulatory suppressor cells do not work with respect to suppression of their activity. There is an evident disturbance of the both central and peripheral tolerance mechanisms. In the case of tumor growth, it has been shown that suppression of T regulatory cells results in development of autoimmune pathology, along with inhibition of tumor growth. The recent data from the literature allow us to suggest a targeted reaction of immune cells against tumor-associated antigens, and not against tumor-specific antigens. One should assume that these T cell effectors against tumor-associated antigens also have reached the peripheral tissues after migration from the thymus, without undergoing negative selection. However, their antitumor activity on the periphery could be suppressed by T regulatory cells. Apparently, it should be considered that the immune response to tumor growth exhibited features of an autoimmune response to tumor-associated antigens with induction of its activities by means of T regulatory immune cells.</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>опухолегенез</kwd><kwd>онкогенез</kwd><kwd>тимус</kwd><kwd>аутоантигены</kwd><kwd>миграция Т-клеток</kwd><kwd>Т-регуляторные клетки</kwd><kwd>иммунопатология</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>tumorigenesis</kwd><kwd>oncogenesis</kwd><kwd>thymus</kwd><kwd>autoantigens</kwd><kwd>T cell migration</kwd><kwd>T regulatory cells</kwd><kwd>immunopathology</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><back><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="cit1"><label>1</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ahmadpour S., Habibi M.A., Ghazi F.S., Molazadeh M., Mohammad Pashaie M.R., Mohammadpourf Y. The effects of tumor-derived supernatants (TDS) on cancer cell progression: A review and update on carcinogenesis and immunotherapy. Cancer Treat. Res. Commun., 2024, Vol. 40, 100823. doi: 10.1016/j.ctarc.2024.100823.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ahmadpour S., Habibi M.A., Ghazi F.S., Molazadeh M., Mohammad Pashaie M.R., Mohammadpourf Y. The effects of tumor-derived supernatants (TDS) on cancer cell progression: A review and update on carcinogenesis and immunotherapy. Cancer Treat. Res. Commun., 2024, Vol. 40, 100823. doi: 10.1016/j.ctarc.2024.100823.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit2"><label>2</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Berrih-Aknin S., Panse R.L., Dragin N. AIRE: a missing link to explain female susceptibility to autoimmune diseases. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 2018, Vol. 1412, no. 1, pp. 21-32.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Berrih-Aknin S., Panse R.L., Dragin N. AIRE: a missing link to explain female susceptibility to autoimmune diseases. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 2018, Vol. 1412, no. 1, pp. 21-32.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit3"><label>3</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Blokzijl F., de Ligt J., Jager M., Sasselli V., Roerink S., Sasaki N., Huch M., Boymans S., Kuijk E., Prins P., Nijman I.J., Martincorena I., Mokry M., Wiegerinck C.L., Middendorp S., Sato T., Schwank G., Nieuwenhuis E.E., Verstegen M.M., van der Laan L.J., de Jonge J., IJzermans J.N., Vries R.G., van de Wetering M., Stratton M.R., Clevers H., Cuppen E., van Boxtel R. Tissue-specific mutation accumulation in human adult stem cells during life. Nature, 2016, Vol. 538, pp. 260-264.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Blokzijl F., de Ligt J., Jager M., Sasselli V., Roerink S., Sasaki N., Huch M., Boymans S., Kuijk E., Prins P., Nijman I.J., Martincorena I., Mokry M., Wiegerinck C.L., Middendorp S., Sato T., Schwank G., Nieuwenhuis E.E., Verstegen M.M., van der Laan L.J., de Jonge J., IJzermans J.N., Vries R.G., van de Wetering M., Stratton M.R., Clevers H., Cuppen E., van Boxtel R. Tissue-specific mutation accumulation in human adult stem cells during life. Nature, 2016, Vol. 538, pp. 260-264.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit4"><label>4</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Castellano D., Sepulvera J.M., Garcia-Escobar I., Rodrigues-Antolin A., Sundlo V.A., Cortes-Funes C. The Role of RANK-ligand inhibition in cancer: the story of denosumab. Oncologist, 2011, Vol. 16, pp. 136-145.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Castellano D., Sepulvera J.M., Garcia-Escobar I., Rodrigues-Antolin A., Sundlo V.A., Cortes-Funes C. The Role of RANK-ligand inhibition in cancer: the story of denosumab. Oncologist, 2011, Vol. 16, pp. 136-145.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit5"><label>5</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">de Groot A.F., Appelman-Dijkstra N.M., van der Burg S.H., Kroep J.R. The anti-tumor effect of RANKL inhibition in malignant solid tumors – A systematic review. Cancer Treat. Rev., 2018, Vol. 62, pp. 18-28.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">de Groot A.F., Appelman-Dijkstra N.M., van der Burg S.H., Kroep J.R. The anti-tumor effect of RANKL inhibition in malignant solid tumors – A systematic review. Cancer Treat. Rev., 2018, Vol. 62, pp. 18-28.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit6"><label>6</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Dummer W., Niethammer A.G., Baccala R., Lawson B.R., Wagner N., Reisfeld R.A., Theofilopoulo A.N. T cell homeostatic proliferation elicits effective antitumor autoimmunity. J. Clin. Invest., 2002, Vol. 110, pp. 185-192.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Dummer W., Niethammer A.G., Baccala R., Lawson B.R., Wagner N., Reisfeld R.A., Theofilopoulo A.N. T cell homeostatic proliferation elicits effective antitumor autoimmunity. J. Clin. Invest., 2002, Vol. 110, pp. 185-192.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit7"><label>7</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Dunn G.P., Bruce A.T., Ikeda H., Old L.J., Schreiber R.D. Cancer immunoediting: from immunosurveillance to tumor escape. Nat. Immunol., 2002, Vol. 3, no. 11, pp. 991-998.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Dunn G.P., Bruce A.T., Ikeda H., Old L.J., Schreiber R.D. Cancer immunoediting: from immunosurveillance to tumor escape. Nat. Immunol., 2002, Vol. 3, no. 11, pp. 991-998.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit8"><label>8</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ernst B., Lee D.S., Chang J.M., Sprent J., Surh C.D. The peptide ligands mediating positive selection in the thymus control T cell survival and homeostatic proliferation in periphery. Immunity, 1999, Vol. 11, pp. 173-181.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ernst B., Lee D.S., Chang J.M., Sprent J., Surh C.D. The peptide ligands mediating positive selection in the thymus control T cell survival and homeostatic proliferation in periphery. Immunity, 1999, Vol. 11, pp. 173-181.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit9"><label>9</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Fane M., Weeraratna A.T. How the ageing microenvironment influences tumour progression. Nat. Rev. Cancer, 2020, Vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 89-106.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Fane M., Weeraratna A.T. How the ageing microenvironment influences tumour progression. Nat. Rev. Cancer, 2020, Vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 89-106.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit10"><label>10</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Fink P.J. The biology of recent thymic emigrants. Annu. Rev. Immunol., 2013, Vol. 31, pp. 31-50.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Fink P.J. The biology of recent thymic emigrants. Annu. Rev. Immunol., 2013, Vol. 31, pp. 31-50.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit11"><label>11</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Franks A.L., Slansky J.E. Multiple associations between a broad spectrum of autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammatory diseases and cancer. Anticancer Res., 2012, Vol. 329, no. 4, pp. 1119-1136.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Franks A.L., Slansky J.E. Multiple associations between a broad spectrum of autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammatory diseases and cancer. Anticancer Res., 2012, Vol. 329, no. 4, pp. 1119-1136.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit12"><label>12</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Friesen T.J., Ji Q., Fink P.J. Recent thymic emigrants are tolerized in the absence of inflammation. J. Exp. Med., 2016, Vol. 213, no. 6, pp. 913-920.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Friesen T.J., Ji Q., Fink P.J. Recent thymic emigrants are tolerized in the absence of inflammation. J. Exp. Med., 2016, Vol. 213, no. 6, pp. 913-920.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit13"><label>13</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Gill J., Malin M., Sutherland J., Gray D., Hollander G., Boyd R. Thymic generation and regeneration. Immunol. Rev., 2003, Vol. 195, pp. 28-50.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Gill J., Malin M., Sutherland J., Gray D., Hollander G., Boyd R. Thymic generation and regeneration. Immunol. Rev., 2003, Vol. 195, pp. 28-50.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit14"><label>14</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Gogas H., Ioannovich J., Dafni U., Stavropoulou-Giokas C., Frangia K., Tsoutsos D., Panagiotou P., Polyzos A., Papadopoulos O., Stratigos A., Markopoulos C., Bafaloukos D., Pectasides D., Fountzilas G., Kirkwood J.M. Prognostic significance of autoimmunity during treatment of melanoma with interferon. N. Engl. J. Med., 2006, Vol. 354, no. 7, pp. 709-718.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Gogas H., Ioannovich J., Dafni U., Stavropoulou-Giokas C., Frangia K., Tsoutsos D., Panagiotou P., Polyzos A., Papadopoulos O., Stratigos A., Markopoulos C., Bafaloukos D., Pectasides D., Fountzilas G., Kirkwood J.M. Prognostic significance of autoimmunity during treatment of melanoma with interferon. N. Engl. J. Med., 2006, Vol. 354, no. 7, pp. 709-718.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit15"><label>15</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Gravano D.M., Vignali D.A. The battle against immunopathology: infectious tolerance mediated by regulatory T cells. Cell. Mol. Life Sci., 2012, Vol. 69, no. 12, pp. 1997-2008.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Gravano D.M., Vignali D.A. The battle against immunopathology: infectious tolerance mediated by regulatory T cells. Cell. Mol. Life Sci., 2012, Vol. 69, no. 12, pp. 1997-2008.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit16"><label>16</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Gui J.G., Mustachio L.M., Su D M., Craig R.W. Thymus size and age-related thymic involution: Early programming, sexual dimorphism, progenitors and stroma. Aging Dis., 2012, Vol 3, no. 3, pp. 280-290.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Gui J.G., Mustachio L.M., Su D M., Craig R.W. Thymus size and age-related thymic involution: Early programming, sexual dimorphism, progenitors and stroma. Aging Dis., 2012, Vol 3, no. 3, pp. 280-290.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit17"><label>17</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hadeiba H., Butcher E.C. Thymus-homing dendritic cells in central tolerance. Eur. J. Immunol., 2013, Vol. 43, no. 6, pp. 1425-1429.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hadeiba H., Butcher E.C. Thymus-homing dendritic cells in central tolerance. Eur. J. Immunol., 2013, Vol. 43, no. 6, pp. 1425-1429.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit18"><label>18</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hun M.L., Wong K., Gunawan J.R., Alsharif A., Quinn, K., Chidgey A.P. Gender disparity impacts on thymus aging and LHRH receptor antagonist-induced thymic reconstitution following chemotherapeutic damage. Front. Immunol., 2020, Vol. 11, 302. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00302.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hun M.L., Wong K., Gunawan J.R., Alsharif A., Quinn, K., Chidgey A.P. Gender disparity impacts on thymus aging and LHRH receptor antagonist-induced thymic reconstitution following chemotherapeutic damage. Front. Immunol., 2020, Vol. 11, 302. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00302.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit19"><label>19</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Kennedy C., Bhatia S., Thompson J.A., Grivas P. Preexisting autoimmune disease: implications for immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy in solid tumors. J. Natl. Compr. Canc. Netw., 2019, Vol. 17, no. 6, pp. 750-757.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Kennedy C., Bhatia S., Thompson J.A., Grivas P. Preexisting autoimmune disease: implications for immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy in solid tumors. J. Natl. Compr. Canc. Netw., 2019, Vol. 17, no. 6, pp. 750-757.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit20"><label>20</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Khan I.S., Mouchess M.L., Zhu M.L., Conley B., Fasano K.J., Hou Y., Fong L., Su M.A., Anderson M.S. Enhancement of an anti-tumor immune response by transient blockade of central T cell tolerance. J. Exp. Med., 2014, Vol. 211, no. 5, pp. 761-768.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Khan I.S., Mouchess M.L., Zhu M.L., Conley B., Fasano K.J., Hou Y., Fong L., Su M.A., Anderson M.S. Enhancement of an anti-tumor immune response by transient blockade of central T cell tolerance. J. Exp. Med., 2014, Vol. 211, no. 5, pp. 761-768.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit21"><label>21</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Kieper W.C., Troy A., Burghardt J.T., Ramsey C., Lee J.Y., Jiang H.Q., Dummer W., Shen H., Cebra J.J., Surh C.D. Recent immune status determines the source of antigens that drive homeostatic T cell expansion. J. Immunol., 2005, Vol. 174, no. 6, pp. 3158-3163.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Kieper W.C., Troy A., Burghardt J.T., Ramsey C., Lee J.Y., Jiang H.Q., Dummer W., Shen H., Cebra J.J., Surh C.D. Recent immune status determines the source of antigens that drive homeostatic T cell expansion. J. Immunol., 2005, Vol. 174, no. 6, pp. 3158-3163.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit22"><label>22</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Kumara P., Bhattacharyaa P., Prabhakar B.S. A comprehensive review on the role of co-signaling receptors and treg homeostasis in autoimmunity and tumor immunity. J. Autoimmun., 2018, Vol. 95, pp. 77-99.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Kumara P., Bhattacharyaa P., Prabhakar B.S. A comprehensive review on the role of co-signaling receptors and treg homeostasis in autoimmunity and tumor immunity. J. Autoimmun., 2018, Vol. 95, pp. 77-99.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit23"><label>23</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Liang Z., Dong X., Zhang Z., Zhang Q., Zhao Y. Age-related thymic involution: Mechanisms and functional impact. Aging Cell, 2022, Vol. 21, no. 8, e13671. doi: 10.1111/acel.13671.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Liang Z., Dong X., Zhang Z., Zhang Q., Zhao Y. Age-related thymic involution: Mechanisms and functional impact. Aging Cell, 2022, Vol. 21, no. 8, e13671. doi: 10.1111/acel.13671.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit24"><label>24</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Millington O.R., Mowat A.M., Garside P. Induction of bystander suppression by feeding antigen occurs despite normal clonal expansion of the bystander T cell population. J. Immunol., 2004, Vol. 173, no. 10, pp. 6059-6064.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Millington O.R., Mowat A.M., Garside P. Induction of bystander suppression by feeding antigen occurs despite normal clonal expansion of the bystander T cell population. J. Immunol., 2004, Vol. 173, no. 10, pp. 6059-6064.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit25"><label>25</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Mittal D., Gubin M.M., Schreiber R.D., Smyth M.J. New insights into cancer immunoediting and its three component phases – elimination, equilibrium and escape. Curr. Opin. Immunol., 2014, Vol. 27, pp. 16-25.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Mittal D., Gubin M.M., Schreiber R.D., Smyth M.J. New insights into cancer immunoediting and its three component phases – elimination, equilibrium and escape. Curr. Opin. Immunol., 2014, Vol. 27, pp. 16-25.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit26"><label>26</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Moses C.T., Thorstenson K.M., Jameson S.C., Khoruts A. Competition for self ligands restrains homeostatic proliferation of naive CD4 T cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2003, Vol. 100, pp. 1185-1190.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Moses C.T., Thorstenson K.M., Jameson S.C., Khoruts A. Competition for self ligands restrains homeostatic proliferation of naive CD4 T cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2003, Vol. 100, pp. 1185-1190.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit27"><label>27</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Overwijk W.W., Theore M.R., Finkelstein S.E., Surman D.R., de Jong L.A., Vyth-Dreese F.V., Dellemijn T.A., Antony P.A., Spiess P.J., Palmer D.C., Heimann D.M., Klebanoff C.A., Yu Z., Hwang L.N., Feigenbaum L., Kruisbeek A.M., Rosenberg S.A., Restifo N.P. Tumor regression and autoimmunity after reversal of a functionally tolerant state of self-reactive CD8 T сells. J. Exp. Med., 2003, Vol. 198, no. 4, pp. 569-580.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Overwijk W.W., Theore M.R., Finkelstein S.E., Surman D.R., de Jong L.A., Vyth-Dreese F.V., Dellemijn T.A., Antony P.A., Spiess P.J., Palmer D.C., Heimann D.M., Klebanoff C.A., Yu Z., Hwang L.N., Feigenbaum L., Kruisbeek A.M., Rosenberg S.A., Restifo N.P. Tumor regression and autoimmunity after reversal of a functionally tolerant state of self-reactive CD8 T сells. J. Exp. Med., 2003, Vol. 198, no. 4, pp. 569-580.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit28"><label>28</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Qi Y., Zhang R., Lu Y., Zou X., Yang W. Aire and Fezf2, two regulators in medullary thymic epithelial cells, control autoimmune diseases by regulating TSAs: Partner or complementer? Front. Immunol., 2022, Vol. 13, 948259. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.948259.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Qi Y., Zhang R., Lu Y., Zou X., Yang W. Aire and Fezf2, two regulators in medullary thymic epithelial cells, control autoimmune diseases by regulating TSAs: Partner or complementer? Front. Immunol., 2022, Vol. 13, 948259. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.948259.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit29"><label>29</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Sarter K., Leimgruber E., Gobet F., Agrawal V., Dunand-Sauthier I., Barras E., Mastelic-Gavillet B., Kamath A., Fontannaz P., Guéry L., Duraes F.V., Lippens C., Ravn U., Santiago-Raber M.L., Magistrelli G., Fischer N., Siegrist C.A., Hugues S., Reith W. Btn2a2, a T cell immunomodulatory molecule coregulated with mhc class II genes. J. Exp. Med., 2016, Vol. 213, pp. 177-187.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Sarter K., Leimgruber E., Gobet F., Agrawal V., Dunand-Sauthier I., Barras E., Mastelic-Gavillet B., Kamath A., Fontannaz P., Guéry L., Duraes F.V., Lippens C., Ravn U., Santiago-Raber M.L., Magistrelli G., Fischer N., Siegrist C.A., Hugues S., Reith W. Btn2a2, a T cell immunomodulatory molecule coregulated with mhc class II genes. J. Exp. Med., 2016, Vol. 213, pp. 177-187.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit30"><label>30</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Sheu T.T., Chiang B.L. Lymphopenia, lymphopenia-induced proliferation, and autoimmunity. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 2021, Vol. 22, no. 8, 4152. doi:10.3390/ijms22084152</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Sheu T.T., Chiang B.L. Lymphopenia, lymphopenia-induced proliferation, and autoimmunity. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 2021, Vol. 22, no. 8, 4152. doi:10.3390/ijms22084152</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit31"><label>31</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Shevach E.M., Thornton A.M. tTregs, pTregs, and iTregs: similarities and differences. Immunol. Rev., 2014, Vol. 259, no. 1, pp. 88-102.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Shevach E.M., Thornton A.M. tTregs, pTregs, and iTregs: similarities and differences. Immunol. Rev., 2014, Vol. 259, no. 1, pp. 88-102.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit32"><label>32</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Speiser D.E., Miranda R., Zakarian A., Bachmann M.F., McKall-Faienza K., Odermatt B., Hanahan D., Zinkernagel R.F., Ohashi P.S. Self antigens expressed by solid tumors do not efficiently stimulate naive or activated T cells: implications for immunotherapy. J. Exp. Med., 1997, Vol. 186, no. 5, pp. 645-653.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Speiser D.E., Miranda R., Zakarian A., Bachmann M.F., McKall-Faienza K., Odermatt B., Hanahan D., Zinkernagel R.F., Ohashi P.S. Self antigens expressed by solid tumors do not efficiently stimulate naive or activated T cells: implications for immunotherapy. J. Exp. Med., 1997, Vol. 186, no. 5, pp. 645-653.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit33"><label>33</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Stanworth R.D., Jones T.H. Testosterone for the aging male; current evidence and recommended practice. Clin. Interv. Aging, 2008, Vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 25-44.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Stanworth R.D., Jones T.H. Testosterone for the aging male; current evidence and recommended practice. Clin. Interv. Aging, 2008, Vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 25-44.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit34"><label>34</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Stone J.D., Harris D.T., Kranz D.M. TCR affinity for p/MHC formed by tumor antigens that are self-proteins: impact on efficacy and toxicity. Curr. Opin. Immunol., 2015, Vol. 33, pp. 16-22.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Stone J.D., Harris D.T., Kranz D.M. TCR affinity for p/MHC formed by tumor antigens that are self-proteins: impact on efficacy and toxicity. Curr. Opin. Immunol., 2015, Vol. 33, pp. 16-22.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit35"><label>35</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Su M.A., Anderson M.S. Pulling RANK on cancer: blocking Aire-mediated central tolerance to enhance immunotherapy. Cancer Immunol. Res., 2019, Vol. 7, pp. 854-859.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Su M.A., Anderson M.S. Pulling RANK on cancer: blocking Aire-mediated central tolerance to enhance immunotherapy. Cancer Immunol. Res., 2019, Vol. 7, pp. 854-859.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit36"><label>36</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Tajima M., Wakita D., Noguchi D., Chamoto K., Yue Z., Fugo K., Ishigame H., Iwakura Y., Kitamura H., Nishimura T. IL-6-dependent spontaneous proliferation is required for the induction of colitogenic IL-17-producing CD8+ T cells. J. Exp. Med., 2008, Vol. 205, pp. 1019-1027.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Tajima M., Wakita D., Noguchi D., Chamoto K., Yue Z., Fugo K., Ishigame H., Iwakura Y., Kitamura H., Nishimura T. IL-6-dependent spontaneous proliferation is required for the induction of colitogenic IL-17-producing CD8+ T cells. J. Exp. Med., 2008, Vol. 205, pp. 1019-1027.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit37"><label>37</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Takaba H., Takayanagi H. The mechanisms of T cell selection in the thymus. Trends Immunol., 2017, Vol. 38, no. 11, pp. 805-816.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Takaba H., Takayanagi H. The mechanisms of T cell selection in the thymus. Trends Immunol., 2017, Vol. 38, no. 11, pp. 805-816.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit38"><label>38</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Tan J.T., Dudl E., LeRoy E., Murray R., Sprent J., Weinberg K.I., Surh C.D. IL-7 is critical for homeostatic proliferation and survival of naive T cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2001, Vol. 98, pp. 8732-8737.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Tan J.T., Dudl E., LeRoy E., Murray R., Sprent J., Weinberg K.I., Surh C.D. IL-7 is critical for homeostatic proliferation and survival of naive T cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2001, Vol. 98, pp. 8732-8737.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit39"><label>39</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Tomofuji Y., Takaba H., Suzuki H.I., Benlaribi R., Martinez C.D.P., Abe Y., Morishita Y., Okamura T., Taguchi A., Kodama T., Takayanagi H. Chd4 choreographs self-antigen expression for central immune tolerance. Nat. Immunol., 2020, Vol. 8, pp. 892-901.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Tomofuji Y., Takaba H., Suzuki H.I., Benlaribi R., Martinez C.D.P., Abe Y., Morishita Y., Okamura T., Taguchi A., Kodama T., Takayanagi H. Chd4 choreographs self-antigen expression for central immune tolerance. Nat. Immunol., 2020, Vol. 8, pp. 892-901.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit40"><label>40</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Tuncel J., Holmberg J., Haag S., Hopkins M.H., Wester-Rosenlöf L., Carlsen S., Olofsson P., Holmdahl R. Self-reactive T cells induce and perpetuate chronic relapsing arthritis.Arthritis Res. Ther., 2020, Vol. 22, no. 1, 95. doi: 10.1186/s13075-020-2104-7.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Tuncel J., Holmberg J., Haag S., Hopkins M.H., Wester-Rosenlöf L., Carlsen S., Olofsson P., Holmdahl R. Self-reactive T cells induce and perpetuate chronic relapsing arthritis.Arthritis Res. Ther., 2020, Vol. 22, no. 1, 95. doi: 10.1186/s13075-020-2104-7.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit41"><label>41</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">van den Broek T., Borghans J.A.M., van Wijk F. The full spectrum of human naive T cells. Nat. Rev. Immunology, 2018, Vol. 18, no. 6, pp. 363-373.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">van den Broek T., Borghans J.A.M., van Wijk F. The full spectrum of human naive T cells. Nat. Rev. Immunology, 2018, Vol. 18, no. 6, pp. 363-373.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit42"><label>42</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Wang Y., Dong C., Han Y., Gu Z., Chi Sun C. Immunosenescence, aging and successful aging. Front. Immunol., 2022, Vol. 13, 942796. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.942796.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wang Y., Dong C., Han Y., Gu Z., Chi Sun C. Immunosenescence, aging and successful aging. Front. Immunol., 2022, Vol. 13, 942796. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.942796.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit43"><label>43</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Zdrojewicz Z., Pachura E., Pachura P. The thymus: a forgotten, but very important organ. Adv. Clin. Exp. Med., 2016, Vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 369-375.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Zdrojewicz Z., Pachura E., Pachura P. The thymus: a forgotten, but very important organ. Adv. Clin. Exp. Med., 2016, Vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 369-375.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit44"><label>44</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Zhu M.L., Bakhru P., Conley B., Nelson J.S., Free M., Martin A., Starmer J., Wilson E.M., Su M.A. Sex bias in CNS autoimmune disease mediated by androgen control of autoimmune regulator. Nat. Commun., 2016, Vol. 7, 11350. doi: 10.1038/ncomms11350.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Zhu M.L., Bakhru P., Conley B., Nelson J.S., Free M., Martin A., Starmer J., Wilson E.M., Su M.A. Sex bias in CNS autoimmune disease mediated by androgen control of autoimmune regulator. Nat. Commun., 2016, Vol. 7, 11350. doi: 10.1038/ncomms11350.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit45"><label>45</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Zúñiga-Pflücker J.C. The original intrathymic progenitor from which T cells originate. J. Immunol., 2009, Vol. 183, no. 1, pp. 3-4.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Zúñiga-Pflücker J.C. The original intrathymic progenitor from which T cells originate. J. Immunol., 2009, Vol. 183, no. 1, pp. 3-4.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref></ref-list><fn-group><fn fn-type="conflict"><p>The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.</p></fn></fn-group></back></article>
